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1 the Africans
Собирательно: африканцы -
2 (the) Africans
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3 remember the Africans
Общая лексика: в Африке дети голодают (At Christmas dinner if I leave something on my plate he goes, ‘Peaches, remember the f***ing Africans’; http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/article603468.ece) -
4 turn the other cheek
подставить другую щёку [этим. библ. Matthew V, 39]They declared that Africans will not ‘Turn the other cheek’, and that ‘if you hit us, we may hit back.’ (‘New World Review’) — Африканцы, собравшиеся в Аккре, заявили, что они не станут "подставлять другую щеку" и что если их ударят, то они нанесут ответный удар.
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5 African
1. nафриканець; африканка2. adjафриканський* * *I n1) африканець; африканкаthe Africans — збірн. африканці
2) = Afro-American I; віддалений нащадок африканців ( про американського негра або мулата)II aафриканський; який стосується чорношкірих американців -
6 São Tomé and Príncipe
Comprising a former colony of Portugal, these two islands of volcanic origin are located in the Gulf of Guinea, West Africa. The Portuguese first found these tropical islands about 1471, and efforts to settle them began in 1486 on São Tomé and about 1500 on Príncipe Island. Portugal settled them withAfrican slaves from the mainland. A significant portion of the Africans who were forced to work the coffee and cocoa plantations were from Angola, and some were from the Cape Verde Islands. The early economy of the islands was dominated by sugar as plantations were established, based on the systems pioneered earlier in Madeira and the Cape Verdes. In the 19th and 20th centuries, however, coffee and cocoa plantations were developed. The cocoa plantations, which were owned largely by Portuguese from Portugal, produced the raw material for chocolate and soon formed the principal wealth of this colony.In the early 20th century, forced labor practices and other labor abuses on the Portuguese-owned plantations drew worldwide attention through the famous writings of the British investigative reporter-writer, Henry W. Nevinson. Portugal's colonial rule there, as well as in Angola and Mozambique, whose excesses were now exposed in newspapers and books, also came under the scrutiny of leading humanitarian organizations in London and elsewhere. Although Portugal defended colonial rule in this case and made reform efforts, tragically extensive labor abuse in the islands persisted into the middle of the 20th century. The islands were not involved in a war of African insurgency. In 1975, Portugal granted independence to the archipelago, whose official language of government and instruction remains Portuguese. -
7 ♦ cry
♦ cry /kraɪ/n.1 grido: a cry of joy [of pain], un grido di gioia [di dolore]; hostile cries, grida ostili; to give a cry, dare un grido; to utter a cry, lanciare un grido7 (= war cry) slogan; motto; parola d'ordine: «Africa to the Africans» is their cry, «l'Africa agli africani» è il loro slogan● a cry from the heart, un grido dal cuore □ (fig.) a far cry from, tutt'altro che; ben altro che; tutt'altra cosa che: It was a far cry from the holiday we had been led to expect, è stata tutt'altro che la (o c'era una bella differenza rispetto alla) vacanza che ci avevano prospettato □ to be in full cry, ( di muta di cani) abbaiare e correre all'inseguimento; ( di gruppo di persone) essere lanciato all'inseguimento; (fig.) essere lanciato, scatenato, accanito (a fare qc.); chiedere a gran voce qc. □ to be [to keep] within cry, essere [tenersi] a portata di voce.♦ (to) cry /kraɪ/A v. i.1 gridare; esclamare: to cry with alarm, gridare allarmato; to cry with pain, gridare dal dolore; to cry for help, gridare aiuto; lanciare grida di aiuto2 – to cry for, chiedere a gran voce; reclamare; ( di cosa) avere urgente bisogno di: The people are crying for justice, la gente reclama giustizia; The fields are crying for rain, i campi hanno urgente bisogno di pioggia3 piangere: The baby is crying, il bambino sta piangendo; Stop crying!, smettila di piangere!; (fam.) I'll give you something to cry for, te la do io una (buona) ragione per piangere!; She was crying for her mother, chiamava piangendo la mamma; piangeva perché voleva la mammaB v. t.1 gridare: «Silence!» Lucy cried, «Silenzio!» gridò Lucy3 piangere; versare: to cry tears of joy [bitter tears], piangere lacrime di gioia [lacrime amare]● (fam.) to cry all the way to the bank, incassare i soldi e ignorare le critiche □ to cry one's eyes (o heart) out, piangere a dirotto; piangere tutte le proprie lacrime □ to cry for the moon, chiedere la luna; volere la luna (nel pozzo) □ It cries for vengeance, grida vendetta (al cospetto di Dio) □ to cry foul, protestare ( per un'ingiustizia, un torto) □ to cry halves, reclamare una parte (o metà) di ( una cosa trovata, ecc.) □ (fam.) to cry in one's beer, piangersi addosso □ to cry for mercy, implorare pietà □ to cry over one's lost opportunities, rimpiangere le occasioni mancate □ to cry oneself to sleep, addormentarsi per il gran piangere □ to cry over spilt milk, piangere sul latte versato □ to cry quits, gridare che se ne è avuto abbastanza; arrendersi □ (fam. GB) to cry stinking fish, sminuire i propri sforzi, i propri meriti; sminuirsi; deprezzare la propria merce □ (fig.) to cry wolf, gridare al lupo. -
8 funk
N1. नृत्य\{आधुनिक\funkताल\funkव\funkलय\funkका\funkनृत्य\}The Africans concluded the celebration with a funk.2. भयThe girl was in a state of funk after the accident. -
9 wish
------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] make a wish[Swahili Word] -nuika[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Word] nia------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] make a wish[Swahili Word] -nuiza[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Word] nia------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] dhamira[Swahili Plural] dhamira[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Language] Arabic[English Example] it is the wish of the Africans to achieve independence------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] hiari[Swahili Plural] hiari[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Language] Arabic------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] hoja[Swahili Plural] hoja[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Word] haja------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] hoja[Swahili Plural] hoja[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] mapenzi[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] penda------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] mataka[Swahili Plural] mataka[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] taka V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] matakwa[Swahili Plural] matakwa[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] taka V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] muradi[Swahili Plural] miradi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 3/4[Derived Word] Arabic------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] pendekezo[Swahili Plural] mapendekezo[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] penzi[Swahili Plural] mapenzi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6[Derived Word] penda V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[English Plural] wishes[Swahili Word] taraja[Swahili Plural] mataraja[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -arithi[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -jadi[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Language] Arabic------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -penda[Part of Speech] verb[English Example] for your sake[Swahili Example] kwa kupenda kwako------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -taka[Part of Speech] verb[Related Words] mataka, mtaka, mtashi, utashi------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -takia[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -taraji[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -tumai[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish[Swahili Word] -tumaini[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish (urgent)[English Plural] wishes (urgent)[Swahili Word] hamu[Part of Speech] noun[Swahili Example] ona (kuwa na hamu)------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish for someone[Swahili Word] -takia[Part of Speech] verb[Class] applicative[English Example] to wish Bi Tamima peace[Swahili Example] kumtakia salama Bi Tamima [Moh],------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wish someone good morning[Swahili Word] -sabahi[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] wishes of fecundity that are also expressed on the occasion of the first menstruation[Swahili Word] chereko! chereko![Part of Speech] interjection------------------------------------------------------------ -
10 desire
------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] arouse desire[Swahili Word] -penya[Part of Speech] verb[English Example] he has a desire for bananas[Swahili Example] ndizi zimempenya------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] be obsessed by a particular desire[Swahili Word] -filisiwa[Part of Speech] verb[Swahili Example] Moyo wake ulifisiliwa na tamaa kubwa ya kutumikia Mwenyezi Mungu. [Rech]------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] gharadi[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] haja[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] hitaji, hoja, hoji, uhaji[Swahili Example] sina haja nayo------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[English Plural] desires[Swahili Word] hawa[Swahili Plural] hawa[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Language] Arabic------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[English Plural] desires[Swahili Word] jadi[Swahili Plural] majadi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6[Derived Language] Arabic------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] kifu[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[English Plural] desires[Swahili Word] kijoyo[Swahili Plural] vijoyo[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 7/8[Derived Language] Swahili[Derived Word] moyo------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] mahitaji[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] haja------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] mapenzi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 6[Derived Word] penda V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] mataka[Swahili Plural] mataka[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] taka V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] matakwa[Swahili Plural] matakwa[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] taka V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] matilaba[Swahili Plural] matilaba[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] mori[Swahili Plural] mori[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Swahili Example] huko kulalamika kulizidi kumtia mori [Muk]------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[English Plural] desires[Swahili Word] mradi[Swahili Plural] miradi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 3/4[Swahili Example] sasa ni mwalimu na ametimiza mradi wake------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] ngoa[Swahili Plural] ngoa[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[English Example] satisfy desire[Swahili Example] timiza ngoa------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] pendekezo[Swahili Plural] mapendekezo[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6[Derived Word] penda V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[English Plural] desires[Swahili Word] penzi[Swahili Plural] mapenzi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6[Derived Word] penda V[English Example] (s)he has a desire to study[Swahili Example] Anapenzi la kusoma------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] tamaa[Swahili Plural] tamaa[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Word] Arabic[English Example] they have desire[Swahili Example] wana [fanya] tamaa------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] tamani[Swahili Plural] tamani[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Word] tamani V (Arabic)------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] tamanio[Swahili Plural] matamanio[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6[Derived Word] Arabic[English Example] but that was the desire of his/her soul only[Swahili Example] lakini hayo yalikuwa matamanio ya nafsi yake tu [Sul]------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] tumai[Swahili Plural] matumaini[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] tumaini[Swahili Plural] matumaini[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] uchu[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 14------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] uhitaji[Swahili Plural] mahitaji[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 11/6[Derived Word] hitaji V------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] utamani[Part of Speech] noun[Note] rare------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] utamanifu[Part of Speech] noun[Note] rare------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[English Plural] desires[Swahili Word] dhamira[Swahili Plural] dhamira[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Language] Arabic[English Example] it is the wish of the Africans to achieve independence[Swahili Example] ni dhamiri ya Waafrika kupata uhuru------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -ania[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Language] Arabic[Related Words] nia, -nuia------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -hamu[Swahili Plural] hamu[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Word] Arabic[Swahili Example] alikuwa anamhamu Maimuna kwa mawili na matatu [Moh]------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -hitaji[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Word] haja, mhitaji, uhitaji[Swahili Example] yahitaji------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -tamani[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Word] Arabic------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -taraji[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -wa na hamu[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -tumai[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -tumaini[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -tunuka[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire[Swahili Word] -wania[Part of Speech] verb[Swahili Example] mambo ya kuungua jua kungojea mabasi siwanii [Ma]------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire (strong)[Swahili Word] majadi[Part of Speech] noun[Derived Word] jadi------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire (strongly)[Swahili Word] -jadi[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Language] Arabic------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire (urgently)[Swahili Word] -dhamiria[Part of Speech] verb[Class] applicative[Derived Language] Swahili[Derived Word] -dhamiri[Related Words] dhamira------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire (us sexual)[Swahili Word] nyege[Swahili Plural] nyege[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire (us sexual)[Swahili Word] unyege[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire (us. sexual)[Swahili Word] unyege[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] desire each other (sexually)[Swahili Word] -takana[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] passionate desire[Swahili Word] ashki[Swahili Plural] ashiki[Part of Speech] noun------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] satisfy desire[Swahili Word] -timiza ngoa[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] satisfy desire[Swahili Word] -timiza ngoa[Part of Speech] verb[English Example] satisfy desire[Swahili Example] timiza ngoa------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] sexual desire[Swahili Word] tamaa[Swahili Plural] tamaa[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] sexual desire[English Plural] sexual desires[Swahili Word] uchu[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 14[Swahili Example] wanawake huwa na uchu watokapo mwezini------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] strong desire[Swahili Word] ashiki[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 14------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] strong desire[Swahili Word] hawaa[Swahili Plural] hawaa[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] strong desire[Swahili Word] shauku[Swahili Plural] shauku[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Word] Arabic[English Example] (s)he waited with a lot of excitement and strong desire[Swahili Example] alisubiri kwa ghamidha na shauku kuu [Muk]------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] strong desire[Swahili Word] utashi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 14[Derived Word] taka v------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] with great desire[Swahili Word] kwa shauku[Part of Speech] adjective------------------------------------------------------------ -
11 doubt
------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] be in doubt[Swahili Word] -wa na shaka[Part of Speech] verb------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] doubt[English Plural] doubts[Swahili Word] shaka[Swahili Plural] mashaka[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6[English Example] they have doubt[Swahili Example] wana shaka.------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] doubt[English Plural] doubts[Swahili Word] shuku[Swahili Plural] mashuku[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 5/6[Derived Word] shaka N------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] doubt[English Plural] doubts[Swahili Word] tashwishi[Swahili Plural] tashwishi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 9/10[Derived Word] shawishi V[English Example] have doubts[Swahili Example] shikwa [patwa] na tashwishi------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] doubt[Swahili Word] wasiwasi[Swahili Plural] wasiwasi[Part of Speech] noun[Class] 14------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] doubt[Swahili Word] -shuku[Part of Speech] verb[Derived Word] shaka N------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] indicates doubt about a following statement[Swahili Word] eti[Part of Speech] phrase[Swahili Definition] tamko la kuonyesha shaka juu ya jambo fulani [Masomo 206][English Example] The strangers had no right to oppress the Africans on the false pretense that they were civilizing them[Swahili Example] Wageni hawakuwa na haki yo yote ya kuwaonea Waafrika kwa kisingizio eti wanawasstaarabisha [Masomo 206]------------------------------------------------------------[English Word] without a doubt[Swahili Word] pasipo shaka[Part of Speech] preposition------------------------------------------------------------ -
12 african
1. [ʹæfrıkən] n1. африканец; африканкаthe Africans - собир. африканцы
2. 1) = Afro-American I2) отдалённый потомок африканцев ( об американском негре или мулате)2. [ʹæfrıkən] a1) африканский2) относящийся к чёрным американцам -
13 African
I n1) африканець; африканкаthe Africans — збірн. африканці
2) = Afro-American I; віддалений нащадок африканців ( про американського негра або мулата)II aафриканський; який стосується чорношкірих американців -
14 African
1. n африканец; африканка2. n отдалённый потомок африканцев3. a африканскийAfrican drum — тумба, африканский барабан
4. a относящийся к чёрным американцам -
15 Slavery and Slave trade, Portuguese
The Portuguese role in the Atlantic slave trade (ca. 1500-1850), next to Portugal's motives for empire and the nature of her colonial rule, remains one of the most controversial historical questions. The institution of slavery was conventional in Roman and Visigothic Portugal, and the Catholic Church sanctioned it. The origins of an international traffic in enslaved African captives in the Atlantic are usually dated to after the year 1411, when the first black African slaves were brought to Portugal (Lagos) and sold, but there were activities a century earlier that indicated the beginnings. In the 1340s, under King Afonso IV, Portuguese had captured native islanders on voyages to the Canary Islands and later used them as slave labor in the sugar plantations of Madeira. After 1500, and especially after the 1550s, when African slave-worked plantations became established in Brazil and other American colonies, the Atlantic slave trade became a vast international enterprise in which Portugal played a key role. But all the European maritime powers were involved in the slave trade from 1500 to 1800, including Great Britain, France, and Holland, those countries that eventually pressured Portugal to cease the slave trade in its empire.No one knows the actual numbers of Africans enslaved in the nefarious business, but it is clear that millions of persons during more than three-and-a-half centuries were forcibly stolen from African societies and that the survivors of the terrible slave voyages helped build the economies of the Americas. Portugal's role in the trade was as controversial as its impact on Portuguese society. Comparatively large numbers of African slaves resided in Portugal, although the precise number remains a mystery; by the last quarter of the 18th century, when the prime minister of King José I, the Marquis of Pombal abolished slavery in Portugal, the African racial element had been largely absorbed in Portuguese society.Great Portuguese fortunes were built on the African slave trade in Portugal, Brazil, and Angola, and the slave trade continued in the Portuguese empire until the 1850s and 1860s. The Angolan slave trade across the Atlantic was doomed after Brazil banned the import of slaves in 1850, under great pressure from Britain. As for slavery in Portugal's African empire, various forms of this institution, including forced labor, continued in Angola and Mozambique until the early 1960s. A curious vestige of the Portuguese role in the African slave trade over the centuries is found in the family name, appearing in Lisbon telephone books, of Negreiro, which means literally, "One who trades in (African) Negro slaves."Historical dictionary of Portugal > Slavery and Slave trade, Portuguese
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16 Introduction
Portugal is a small Western European nation with a large, distinctive past replete with both triumph and tragedy. One of the continent's oldest nation-states, Portugal has frontiers that are essentially unchanged since the late 14th century. The country's unique character and 850-year history as an independent state present several curious paradoxes. As of 1974, when much of the remainder of the Portuguese overseas empire was decolonized, Portuguese society appeared to be the most ethnically homogeneous of the two Iberian states and of much of Europe. Yet, Portuguese society had received, over the course of 2,000 years, infusions of other ethnic groups in invasions and immigration: Phoenicians, Greeks, Celts, Romans, Suevi, Visigoths, Muslims (Arab and Berber), Jews, Italians, Flemings, Burgundian French, black Africans, and Asians. Indeed, Portugal has been a crossroads, despite its relative isolation in the western corner of the Iberian Peninsula, between the West and North Africa, Tropical Africa, and Asia and America. Since 1974, Portugal's society has become less homogeneous, as there has been significant immigration of former subjects from its erstwhile overseas empire.Other paradoxes should be noted as well. Although Portugal is sometimes confused with Spain or things Spanish, its very national independence and national culture depend on being different from Spain and Spaniards. Today, Portugal's independence may be taken for granted. Since 1140, except for 1580-1640 when it was ruled by Philippine Spain, Portugal has been a sovereign state. Nevertheless, a recurring theme of the nation's history is cycles of anxiety and despair that its freedom as a nation is at risk. There is a paradox, too, about Portugal's overseas empire(s), which lasted half a millennium (1415-1975): after 1822, when Brazil achieved independence from Portugal, most of the Portuguese who emigrated overseas never set foot in their overseas empire, but preferred to immigrate to Brazil or to other countries in North or South America or Europe, where established Portuguese overseas communities existed.Portugal was a world power during the period 1415-1550, the era of the Discoveries, expansion, and early empire, and since then the Portuguese have experienced periods of decline, decadence, and rejuvenation. Despite the fact that Portugal slipped to the rank of a third- or fourth-rate power after 1580, it and its people can claim rightfully an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions that assure their place both in world and Western history. These distinctions should be kept in mind while acknowledging that, for more than 400 years, Portugal has generally lagged behind the rest of Western Europe, although not Southern Europe, in social and economic developments and has remained behind even its only neighbor and sometime nemesis, Spain.Portugal's pioneering role in the Discoveries and exploration era of the 15th and 16th centuries is well known. Often noted, too, is the Portuguese role in the art and science of maritime navigation through the efforts of early navigators, mapmakers, seamen, and fishermen. What are often forgotten are the country's slender base of resources, its small population largely of rural peasants, and, until recently, its occupation of only 16 percent of the Iberian Peninsula. As of 1139—10, when Portugal emerged first as an independent monarchy, and eventually a sovereign nation-state, England and France had not achieved this status. The Portuguese were the first in the Iberian Peninsula to expel the Muslim invaders from their portion of the peninsula, achieving this by 1250, more than 200 years before Castile managed to do the same (1492).Other distinctions may be noted. Portugal conquered the first overseas empire beyond the Mediterranean in the early modern era and established the first plantation system based on slave labor. Portugal's empire was the first to be colonized and the last to be decolonized in the 20th century. With so much of its scattered, seaborne empire dependent upon the safety and seaworthiness of shipping, Portugal was a pioneer in initiating marine insurance, a practice that is taken for granted today. During the time of Pombaline Portugal (1750-77), Portugal was the first state to organize and hold an industrial trade fair. In distinctive political and governmental developments, Portugal's record is more mixed, and this fact suggests that maintaining a government with a functioning rule of law and a pluralist, representative democracy has not been an easy matter in a country that for so long has been one of the poorest and least educated in the West. Portugal's First Republic (1910-26), only the third republic in a largely monarchist Europe (after France and Switzerland), was Western Europe's most unstable parliamentary system in the 20th century. Finally, the authoritarian Estado Novo or "New State" (1926-74) was the longest surviving authoritarian system in modern Western Europe. When Portugal departed from its overseas empire in 1974-75, the descendants, in effect, of Prince Henry the Navigator were leaving the West's oldest empire.Portugal's individuality is based mainly on its long history of distinc-tiveness, its intense determination to use any means — alliance, diplomacy, defense, trade, or empire—to be a sovereign state, independent of Spain, and on its national pride in the Portuguese language. Another master factor in Portuguese affairs deserves mention. The country's politics and government have been influenced not only by intellectual currents from the Atlantic but also through Spain from Europe, which brought new political ideas and institutions and novel technologies. Given the weight of empire in Portugal's past, it is not surprising that public affairs have been hostage to a degree to what happened in her overseas empire. Most important have been domestic responses to imperial affairs during both imperial and internal crises since 1415, which have continued to the mid-1970s and beyond. One of the most important themes of Portuguese history, and one oddly neglected by not a few histories, is that every major political crisis and fundamental change in the system—in other words, revolution—since 1415 has been intimately connected with a related imperial crisis. The respective dates of these historical crises are: 1437, 1495, 1578-80, 1640, 1820-22, 1890, 1910, 1926-30, 1961, and 1974. The reader will find greater detail on each crisis in historical context in the history section of this introduction and in relevant entries.LAND AND PEOPLEThe Republic of Portugal is located on the western edge of the Iberian Peninsula. A major geographical dividing line is the Tagus River: Portugal north of it has an Atlantic orientation; the country to the south of it has a Mediterranean orientation. There is little physical evidence that Portugal is clearly geographically distinct from Spain, and there is no major natural barrier between the two countries along more than 1,214 kilometers (755 miles) of the Luso-Spanish frontier. In climate, Portugal has a number of microclimates similar to the microclimates of Galicia, Estremadura, and Andalusia in neighboring Spain. North of the Tagus, in general, there is an Atlantic-type climate with higher rainfall, cold winters, and some snow in the mountainous areas. South of the Tagus is a more Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry, often rainless summers and cool, wet winters. Lisbon, the capital, which has a fifth of the country's population living in its region, has an average annual mean temperature about 16° C (60° F).For a small country with an area of 92,345 square kilometers (35,580 square miles, including the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and the Madeiras), which is about the size of the state of Indiana in the United States, Portugal has a remarkable diversity of regional topography and scenery. In some respects, Portugal resembles an island within the peninsula, embodying a unique fusion of European and non-European cultures, akin to Spain yet apart. Its geography is a study in contrasts, from the flat, sandy coastal plain, in some places unusually wide for Europe, to the mountainous Beira districts or provinces north of the Tagus, to the snow-capped mountain range of the Estrela, with its unique ski area, to the rocky, barren, remote Trás-os-Montes district bordering Spain. There are extensive forests in central and northern Portugal that contrast with the flat, almost Kansas-like plains of the wheat belt in the Alentejo district. There is also the unique Algarve district, isolated somewhat from the Alentejo district by a mountain range, with a microclimate, topography, and vegetation that resemble closely those of North Africa.Although Portugal is small, just 563 kilometers (337 miles) long and from 129 to 209 kilometers (80 to 125 miles) wide, it is strategically located on transportation and communication routes between Europe and North Africa, and the Americas and Europe. Geographical location is one key to the long history of Portugal's three overseas empires, which stretched once from Morocco to the Moluccas and from lonely Sagres at Cape St. Vincent to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It is essential to emphasize the identity of its neighbors: on the north and east Portugal is bounded by Spain, its only neighbor, and by the Atlantic Ocean on the south and west. Portugal is the westernmost country of Western Europe, and its shape resembles a face, with Lisbon below the nose, staring into theAtlantic. No part of Portugal touches the Mediterranean, and its Atlantic orientation has been a response in part to turning its back on Castile and Léon (later Spain) and exploring, traveling, and trading or working in lands beyond the peninsula. Portugal was the pioneering nation in the Atlantic-born European discoveries during the Renaissance, and its diplomatic and trade relations have been dominated by countries that have been Atlantic powers as well: Spain; England (Britain since 1707); France; Brazil, once its greatest colony; and the United States.Today Portugal and its Atlantic islands have a population of roughly 10 million people. While ethnic homogeneity has been characteristic of it in recent history, Portugal's population over the centuries has seen an infusion of non-Portuguese ethnic groups from various parts of Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. Between 1500 and 1800, a significant population of black Africans, brought in as slaves, was absorbed in the population. And since 1950, a population of Cape Verdeans, who worked in menial labor, has resided in Portugal. With the influx of African, Goan, and Timorese refugees and exiles from the empire—as many as three quarters of a million retornados ("returned ones" or immigrants from the former empire) entered Portugal in 1974 and 1975—there has been greater ethnic diversity in the Portuguese population. In 2002, there were 239,113 immigrants legally residing in Portugal: 108,132 from Africa; 24,806 from Brazil; 15,906 from Britain; 14,617 from Spain; and 11,877 from Germany. In addition, about 200,000 immigrants are living in Portugal from eastern Europe, mainly from Ukraine. The growth of Portugal's population is reflected in the following statistics:1527 1,200,000 (estimate only)1768 2,400,000 (estimate only)1864 4,287,000 first census1890 5,049,7001900 5,423,0001911 5,960,0001930 6,826,0001940 7,185,1431950 8,510,0001960 8,889,0001970 8,668,000* note decrease1980 9,833,0001991 9,862,5401996 9,934,1002006 10,642,8362010 10,710,000 (estimated) -
17 slave
[sleiv] 1. noun1) (a person who works for a master to whom he belongs: In the nineteenth century many Africans were sold as slaves in the United States.) slave2) (a person who works very hard for someone else: He has a slave who types his letters and organizes his life for him.) slave2. verb(to work very hard, often for another person: I've been slaving away for you all day while you sit and watch television.) slave; slide og slæbe- slavery* * *[sleiv] 1. noun1) (a person who works for a master to whom he belongs: In the nineteenth century many Africans were sold as slaves in the United States.) slave2) (a person who works very hard for someone else: He has a slave who types his letters and organizes his life for him.) slave2. verb(to work very hard, often for another person: I've been slaving away for you all day while you sit and watch television.) slave; slide og slæbe- slavery -
18 traction
•• * Интересное слово. Не знаю, можно ли говорить о новом его значении или речь идет о метафорическом словоупотреблении, связанном с его известными значениями (тяга, сила сцепления, притягательная сила), но во всех нижеследующих примерах (из нескольких номеров Washington Post) двуязычные словари (я смотрел Новый БАРС и ABBYY Lingvo) не очень помогут переводчику:
•• 1. With his plan to lower the cost of health care for most Americans, “Gephardt has hit on a real Achilles’ heel, and he will get traction on it if he becomes the nominee,” said Rep. Ray LaHood. (R-Ill.) 2. One of the biggest temptations for lawmakers will be to lend the money rather than spend it outright. This approach has particular traction in the Senate, where a number of Republicans are endorsing it. 3. The message from Annan’s demoralized staff to the Bush administration was summed up by a senior U.N. official speaking to the Financial Times: “We wish you well, we hope you succeed, but we want to maintain our own integrity in case you don’t.” In other words, abandon ship. Not surprisingly, the resolution did not gain traction in this atmosphere. 4. “ People like Mikulski in Maryland,” said Matthew Crenson, a political science professor at Johns Hopkins University. “It’s illustrative of how difficult it is for Republicans to gain traction in this state that they had to cast about for a candidate for so long.”
•• В принципе в переводе всех этих примеров подойдет слово поддержка (или сторонники). Это удачный контекстуальный перевод, но он, конечно, не описывает значения. Для его описания больше подойдут слова шансы на успех, перспективы, привлекательность.
•• Пример того, как вошедшее в моду слово приобретает эластичность, по сути не меняя своего значения, а просто за счет расширения метафоры, т.е. ее распространения на новые сферы:
•• The euro’s rise to a record high this week, driven by a skidding dollar, comes at a sensitive time for a European economic recovery that finally seems to be gaining a bit of traction. (International Herald Tribune)
•• Для переводчика это может создавать проблемы – ведь, например, в данном случае метафора «трения», «сцепления» в русском языке не работает. Видимо, надо менять метафору. Может быть, так: <...> экономичеcкая активность в Европе начинает, как кажется, потихоньку набирать обороты.
•• Следующий довольно трудный для перевода пример:
•• The minority in this country which is opposed to the U.N. is far more intense than the majority that seems to favor the U.N., so that the minority view has far more traction. (Atlantic)
•• Здесь – изрядно смазанная, но все-таки метафора, и ее придется заменить на другую (Я.И. Рецкер называл такой прием «адекватной заменой»). Думаю, можно попробовать, например, резонанс:
•• Меньшинство, настроенное против ООН, гораздо напористее, чем большинство, которое вроде бы поддерживает ООН, и поэтому мнение меньшинства имеет гораздо больший резонанс.
•• The Bush administration’s grand plan to reform the Middle East may be gaining traction even though most governments in the region remain deeply suspicious of the U.S. president and his proactive agenda. (Newsweek)
•• В переводе – еще одно контекстуальное соответствие:
•• Возможно, амбициозный план администрации по реформированию Ближнего Востока начинает работать/давать плоды, хотя большинство государств региона сохраняют глубоко подозрительное отношение к президенту США и его наступательной стратегии.
•• Здесь, конечно, интересны также слова proactive и agenda. Оба включены в «Мой несистематический словарь», и добавить здесь можно лишь то, что в русское словоупотребление понемногу входит слово проактивный, но мне оно не очень нравится по уже отмеченной причине – в слове активный (в отличие от английского active) это значение и так есть.
•• (В скобках замечу, что у слова traction есть специализированное медицинское значение – вытяжение. Англо-французский словарь дает to be in traction – être en extension. По-русски – лежать на вытяжке.)
•• Помимо to gain traction нередко встречается to gain purchase:
•• We are fast approaching the fifty year anniversary of Harry S. Truman’s inaugural presidential address in which the idea of ‘underdeveloped areas’ first gained purchase in the universe of public discourse. - <...> инаугурационная речь президента Трумэна, в которой впервые прозвучали слова, впоследствии получившие широкое распространение в политической речи, - « слаборазвитые районы».
•• Then the format shrank even more as cassette tapes gained purchase over eight-tracks, finally eclipsing them in the era just prior to compact discs.
•• В данном случае подойдет антонимический перевод:
•• <...> этот формат начал уступать позиции кассетам. To gain purchase over - возможно и вытеснить.
•• Интересно все-таки, что при наличии, казалось бы, полностью синонимичных to gain ground и to gain momentum языку понадобилось и to gain traction. Как и всякая языковая мода, это не всем нравится. Один канадский профессор охарактеризовал как some of the worst examples of writing and thinking I have seen in my entire career следующую фразу: It took the first album about half a year to gain traction among the American youth. Что тут возразить? Нравится слово traction или нет – дело вкуса. Как сказала одна моя коллега в ООН, traction is not a word I would use. Но оно есть, и по «закону языковой моды» чем чаще оно употребляется, тем эластичнее становится его значение. Можно, пожалуй, студентам давать как упражнение на лексическую изобретательность в переводе.
•• Вот еще пара примеров:
•• The government’s policies are gaining traction. South Africa’s corporations are investing and many white South Africans are returning home. (Newsweek)
•• Здесь, конечно, напрашивается <...> политика правительства начинает давать результаты. В рамках того же значения – совершенно не «словарный», контекстуальный вариант перевода:
•• While America’s ambitions in the “greater Middle East” <...> will probably still make its debut at three international summits next month, it’s unlikely to generate much traction any time soon. (Washington Post) – <...> существенного продвижения вперед в обозримом будущем достичь вряд ли удастся.
•• Напоследок: это слово, пожалуй, неплохо подойдет при переводе известного процесс пошел – the process has gained/is gaining traction.
-
19 Brazil
Former Portuguese colony (ca. 1500-1822), once described on old maps as "Portuguese America." Until 1822, the colony of Brazil was Portugal's largest, richest, and most populous colonial territory, and it held the greatest number of overseas Portuguese. Indeed, until 1974, long after Brazil had ceased being a Portuguese colony, the largest number of overseas Portuguese continued to reside in Brazil.Discovered in 1500 by Pedro Álvares Cabral, Brazil experienced significant coastal colonization by Portugal only after 1550. As Portugal's world power and colonial position in North Africa and Asia entered a decline, Brazil began to receive the lion's share of her imperial attention and soon dominated the empire. While Portuguese colonization and civilization had an essential impact on the complex making of Brazil, this fact must be put into perspective. In addition to other European (Italian, German, etc.) and Asian (Japanese) immigrants, two other civilizations or groups of civilizations helped to construct Brazil: the Amerindians who inhabited the land before 1500 and black Africans who were shipped to Brazil's coast as slaves during more than three centuries, mainly from west and central Africa. There is a long history of Portuguese military operations to defend Brazil against internal rebellions as well as other colonial intruders. The French, for example, attacked Brazil several times. But it was the Dutch who proved the greatest threat, when they held northeast Brazil from 1624 to 1654, until they were expelled by Portuguese and colonial forces.Until the 17th century, Portuguese colonization was largely coastal. By the 18th century, Portuguese groups began to penetrate deep into the hinterland, including an area rich in minerals, the Minas Gerais ("General Mines"). Lisbon extracted the greatest wealth from Brazil during the "golden age" of mining of gold and diamonds from 1670 to 1750. But hefty profits for the king also came from Brazilian sugar, tobacco, cotton, woods, and coffee. By the time of Brazil's independence, declared in 1822, Portuguese America had become far more powerful and rich than the mother country. Only a few years before the break, Brazil had been declared a kingdom, in theory on a par with Portugal. A major factor behind the Brazilian independence movement was the impact of the residence of the Portuguese royal family and court in Brazil from 1808 to 1821.What is the Portuguese legacy to Brazil after more than 300 years of colonization? Of the many facets that could be cited, perhaps three are worthy of mention here: the Portuguese language (Brazil is the only Latin American country that has Portuguese as the official language); Portuguese political and administrative customs; and a large community, mostly in coastal Brazil, of overseas Portuguese. -
20 Freyre, Gilberto
(1900-1987)World famous Brazilian sociologist and scholar whose writings (1933-60) formed the basis for the so-called theory of Luso- Tropicalism. Born in Recife, but receiving his higher degrees in the United States under American scholars, Freyre wrote a pioneering volume on the history of the colonization of Brazil, under the influences of the Portuguese, Amerindians, and black Africans. This first major work on Brazil, with the English title of The Masters and the Slaves, generated controversy over the precise role of Portugal in expansion and colonization in the world. The 1933 book and later writings up to the 1960 commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the death of Prince Henry of Aviz (Prince Henry the Navigator) formed the foundation for certain interpretations that the Estado Novo later used to support its policy of continuing Portuguese colonial rule in Africa and Asia.
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